2.语言Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。4.识别特征DesignFeaturesItreferstothedefiningpopertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Culturaltransmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.P.Sthearbitrarynatureoflanguageisasignofsophisticationanditmakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions⑵ProductivityAnimalsarequitelimitedinthemessagestheyareabletosend.⑶DualityLanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.⑷DisplacementLanguagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.⑸CulturaltransmissionHumancapacityforlanguagehasageneticbasis,butwehavetobetaughtandlearnedthedetailsofanylanguagesystem.thisshowedthatlanguageisculturallytransmitted.notbyinstinct.animalsarebornwiththecapacitytoproducethesetofcallspeculiartotheirspecies.
5.语言能力Competenceistheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage.
6.语言运用Performanceistheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。
7.历时语言学DiachroniclinguisticsThestudyoflanguagechangethroughtime.adiachronicstudyoflanguageisahistoricalstudy,whichstudiesthe
historicaldevelopmentoflanguageoveraperiodoftime.
8.共时语言学SynchronicallinguisticsThestudyofagivenlanguageatagiventime.9.语言langue
Theabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallmembersofa
speechcommunity.
10.言语paroleTherealizationoflangueinactualuse.
11.规定性PrescriptiveItaimstolaydownrulesfor”correct”behavior,totellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhatshouldnotsay.12.描述性
DescriptiveAlinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthe
languagepeopleactuallyuse.
三、问答题1.whataremajorbranchesoflinguistics?whatdoeseachstudy?Phonetics----it’sdefinedasthestudyofthephonicmediumoflanguage,it’sconcernedwithallthesoundsthatoccurintheworld’slanguages.Phonology---thestudyofsoundssystems—theinventoryofdistinctivesoundsthatoccurinalanguageandthepatternsintowhichtheyfall.Morphology---It’sabranchofagrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.Syntax-------it'sasubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureofalanguage.Semantics---It’ssimplydefinedasthestudyofmeaninginabstraction.Pragmatics---thestudyofmeaningincontextofwords.Sociolinguistics—thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosociety.Psycholinguistics---thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofthemind.Appliedlinguistics---theapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning.
2.whydowesaylanguageisarbitrary?Languageisarbitraryinthesensethatthereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenthesoundsthatpeopleuseandtheobjectstowhichthesesoundsrefer.Thefactthatdifferentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesameobjectisagoodillustrationofthearbitrarynatureoflanguage,it’sonlyourtacitagreementofutteranceandconceptatworkandnotanyinnaterelationshipboundupintheutterance.Atypicalexampletoillustratethe‘arbitrariness’oflanguageis‘arosebyanyothernamewouldsmellassweet’.
6.thedistinctionbetweenlangueandparole?⑴langueisabstract,relativelystable⑵paroleisconcrete,variesfrompersontoperson,fromsituationtosituation.
1/Whatislinguistics?什么是语言学？Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedas
thescientificstudyoflanguage.Itstudiesnotanyparticularlanguage,butlanguagesingeneral.
2/Thescopeoflinguistics语言学的研究范畴Thestudyoflanguageasawholeisoftencalledgenerallinguistics.(普通语言学)Thestudyofsounds,whichareusedinlinguisticcommunication,iscalledphonetics.（语音学）Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.（音系学）Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsarecalledmorphology.（形态学）Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax.（句法学）Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.（语义学）Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.（语用学）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsocio-linguistics.（社会语言学）Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingofmindiscalledpsycho-linguistics.（心理语言学）Thestudyofapplications(astherecoveryofspeechability)isgenerallyknownasappliedlinguistics.（应用语言学）Butinanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguage.Otherrelatedbranchesincludeanthropologicallinguistics,（人类语言学）neurologicallinguistics,（神经语言学）mathematicallinguistics,（数字语言学）computationallinguistics.and（计算机语言学）
3/Someimportantdistinctionsinlinguistics语言学研究中的几对基本概念
Prescriptiveanddescriptive规定与描写Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itis
saidtobedescriptive,ifitaimstolaydownrulestotellpeoplewhattheyshouldsayandwhattheyshouldnotsay,itissaidtobeprescriptive.Modernlinguisticsdiffersfromtraditionalgrammar.Traditionalgrammarisprescriptivewhilemodernlinguisticsisdescriptive.Thetaskoflinguistsissupposedtodescribethelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,whetheritis“correct”ornot.
Synchronicanddiachronic共时和历时Thedescriptionofalanguageatsomepointintimeisasynchronicstudy;thedescriptionofalanguageasitchangesthroughtimeisadiachronicstudy.Inmodernlinguistics,synchronicstudyismoreimportant.
Langueandparole语言和言语TheSwisslinguistF.deSaussuremadethedistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleearly20thcentury.Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity,andparolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.Saussuremadethedistinctioninordertosingleoutoneaspectoflanguageforseriousstudy.Hebelieveswhatlinguistsshoulddoistoabstractlanguefromparole,todiscovertheregularitiesgoverningtheactualuseoflanguageandmakethemthesubjectsofstudyoflinguistics.Competenceandperformance语言能力和语言运用
Proposedby
AmericanlinguistN.Chomskyinthelate1950’s.Hedefinescompetenceastheidealuser’sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,andperformancetheactualrealizationofthisknowledgeinlinguisticcommunication.Hebelievesthetaskofthelinguistsistodiscoverandspecifythelanguagerules.
7.同义词SynonymyItreferstothesamenessorclosesimilarityofmeaningorwecansaythatwordsarecloseinmeaningarecalledsynonyms12.上下义关系HyponymyItreferstothesenserelationbetweenamoregeneral,moreinclusivewordandamorespecificword.thewordwhichismoregeneralinmeaningiscalledsuperordinate,andthemorespecificwordsarecalleditshyponyms.
13.反义词AntonymyIt’sthetermusedforoppositenessofmeaningondifferentdimension.degree)例子
分类(1)Gradableantonyms分级反义词(amatterof
Old—middle-aged—young;hot-warm-coldAntonym(2)
Complementaryantonyms互补反义词amatterofdegreebetween分类twoextremes例子Alive—dead;male—female;(3)Relationalopposites关系反义词(中间可以加成分，如上、中、下)father-son;teacher-pupil;doctor-patient;buy-sell;above-below2.言语行为理论
SpeechacttheoryIt’sanimportanttheoryinthe
pragmaticstudyoflanguage.it’saphilosophicalexplanationofthenatureoflinguisticcommunication.itaimstoanswerthequestion”whatdowedowhenusinglanguage?”Theconceptofcausativesperformatives,thelocutionaryact,theillocutionaryact,theperlocutionaryactandthe5categoriesofillocutionaryactsuggestedandformulatedbyJ.R.Searleconstitutethespeechacttheory.3.叙述句
ConstativesConstativesarestatementsthateitherstateor
describe,andarethusverifiableanditbearingthetruth-value.;
4.行为句PerformativesPerformativesaresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andarenotverifiable.
5.言内行为LocutionaryActAlocutionaryactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.it’stheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.
6.言外行为IllcotionaryActAnillocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker’sintentionit’stheactperformedinsayingsomething.
7.言后行为PerlocutionaryActPerlocuationaryActistheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething.it’stheconsequenceof,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.
10.合作原则CooperativePrincipleIt’sproposedandformulatedbyP.Grice,apragmatichypothesis,isaboutthattheparticipantsmustfirstofallbewillingtocooperate,otherwise,itwouldnotbepossibleforthemtocarryonthetalk.
11.会话含义ConversationalimplicaturesAccordingtoP.Grice,itreferstotheextrameaningnotcontainedinthutterance,understandabletothelisteneronlywhenhesharesthespeaker’sknowledgeorknowswhyandhowheviolatesintentionallyoneofthefourmaximsoftheCP.话语的言外之义是说话人通过故意违反某一准则而获得这种听者能懂的暗含之
意
言内行为、言外行为和言后行为例子：youhaveleftthedoorwideopen.Locutionaryact::expressedwhateachwordofthissentenceliterallymean.Illutionaryact:expressedhisintentionofspeaking,askingsomeonetoclosethedoor.Perlocutionaryact:someoneheardthesentence,andclosethedoor,thenthisactissuccessfullyperformed
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